Implicit Memory: Definition, Examples, & Theory

By Beth Birenbaum, MPH
Reviewed by Tchiki Davis, M.A., Ph.D.

What is implicit, or unconscious memory? Learn about what implicit memory is, how it works, and how it can affect our behavior, self-perception, and well-being.

Implicit Memory: Definition, Examples, & Theory

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When we think about what memory is, we usually think of explicit memory, the ability to remember facts or recall an experience. This is also called declarative memory. But consider how you remember how to do everyday activities like tying your shoes. Or, has a sensory experience such as a sound, taste, or smell ever triggered a strong reaction, but you don’t know why?

These are examples of implicit, or non-declarative memory. In this article, we’ll talk about what implicit memory is, the theory behind it, and why it’s important.

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What Is Implicit Memory? (A Definition from Psychology)

You may have heard the terms short-term memory and long-term memory. As the names suggest, short-term memory is information that you remember for a short time, like what time your appointment is at today. And long-term memories can be retrieved throughout your life, like your birthday.

Implicit memory is a type of long-term memory. It’s what allows you to perform daily activities or respond to something without having to consciously think about it. Once the memory is formed, the action or response feels like it plays out on its own. Specific mechanics of the activity are often difficult to describe in words (Roediger, 1990).

In addition, implicit memory not only allows us to perform everyday tasks without having to “think”, but also influences our behavior, how we relate to others, how we respond to things around us, and even how we view ourselves.

How Does Implicit Memory Work?

Implicit memories are formed through experience. With practice or repetition, eventually, the activity or behavior becomes automatic.

A classic example is riding a bike. When learning, you had to concentrate on how to do it—to focus on minor adjustments in balance, speed, and steering. But with practice, you no longer have to consciously focus on how to do it—you just “know”. It feels effortless, and this knowledge doesn’t fade over time. You remember it even if you haven’t done it for years (Schott et al., 2005).

In addition, implicit memories shape who you are—your behaviors, how you relate to others, and your beliefs about yourself. For example, if you grew up with a highly critical parent, you may assume that others are criticizing you even when they’re not. Your reaction is protective and adaptive based on previous experience. In this example, implicit memory can also have detrimental effects on your self-esteem, or hold you back from doing something you want to do out of fear of failure or criticism.

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Implicit Memory vs Explicit Memory

As described above, explicit memory involves the conscious retrieval of information or experiences, while implicit memory refers to an unintentional or nonconscious form of retrieval (Dew & Cabeza, 2011). Studies show these two memory types operate in different areas of the brain.

The divide between implicit and explicit memory can be seen in studies with people suffering from amnesia. In one study, although memories of facts and past experiences were largely absent, study participants could still perform daily activities such as dressing. They could also learn new motor skills (Damis, 2022).

We also see the distinction between these two types of memory in people suffering from Alzheimer’s disease. Explicit memory progressively declines while implicit memory stays intact, at least until the very end stage of the disease (Harrison et al., 2007).

I witnessed this when my dad was diagnosed with Alzheimer’s. As the disease progressed, he could no longer remember his birthday, what year it was, or the names of family members. But when we put on his favorite Frank Sinatra music, he sang along effortlessly. And while there were dramatic changes in behavior, some parts of his core personality remained.

Video: Explicit and Implicit Memory

Implicit Memory Examples

Walking
Riding a bike
Driving
Typing
Knowing how to dress yourself
Tying your shoes
Brushing your teeth
Recalling the words to a song
Playing a musical instrument
Navigating a familiar area such as your house or neighborhood

Types of Implicit Memory

Types of implicit memory include habits, skills (procedural), priming, and conditioning (Squire & Dede, 2015).

Habits
Everyone has experienced habits, both good and bad. Habits are characterized by automatic repetitive behaviors, and they don’t respond well to changes in rewards (Squire & Dede, 2015). (I know I’ve found myself looking at my phone for no good reason.) Other habits can include negative self-talk or healthy habits such as exercise.

Skills
Skills, or procedural memory, is knowing the steps of how to perform an activity without having to “think” about it. When you learned to tie your shoes, you had to concentrate on the mechanics of the process. With practice, the task feels effortless, and eventually you can do it without conscious attention.

Priming
Priming is when exposure to something affects your reaction to something similar without conscious awareness. For example, if you listen to someone talking about fruit, then are later asked to name something yellow, you are more likely to name a banana rather than a sunflower. You were “primed” to think about fruit. Advertising uses this quite effectively to influence our buying behavior.

Conditioning
Conditioning occurs when a stimulus that triggers a reaction or behavior is paired with another unrelated neutral stimulus. After repetition, the neutral stimulus triggers the reaction. An often-cited example is Pavlov's Dog experiment. The experimenter rang a bell (the neutral stimulus) every time the dogs were fed. Over time, the dogs associated the bell with food and started salivating when the bell rang even if there was no food present. Conditioning is similar to priming, but conditioning is more specific and more immediate. The dogs salivate immediately after the bell rings, not three hours later, or when they hear a similar sound.

Implicit Memory and Priming

Priming is a type of implicit memory. Primed responses happen quickly, and therefore have the benefit of allowing us to process information quickly so we make decisions faster and more efficiently (Squire & Dede, 2015). For example, if you hear the word school, you automatically think of teachers, students, and classrooms.

Priming can also be used to manipulate your behavior. An obvious example is how advertising uses priming to influence buying behavior without your awareness. After seeing an advertisement for a restaurant, you are more likely to eat dinner there later.

Recognizing this can help make you more conscious of buying habits as well as how previous experiences may influence other types of decision-making.

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Implicit Memory Functions

As you can see from the list of examples above, implicit memory is important for daily living. It allows you to perform everyday tasks without having to “think” about them, thus freeing up brain power for other tasks. Imagine if every time you walked, you had to consciously think about all the motor activities involved.

Implicit memory also helps you function efficiently in the environment. Because we often encounter the same things over and over, priming improves your ability to “detect, produce, or classify an item based on a recent encounter with the same or a related item” (Squire & Dede, 2015). For example, in experiments, participants can identify objects faster the second time they are presented (Squire & Dede, 2015).

Implicit Memory Theory

Implicit memory develops in the processing networks of the brain. These networks adapt to improve function through experience (Reber, 2013). This is possible through the brain’s general plasticity, or its ability to change and adapt, to strengthen connections between neurons. Upon exposure to experience, areas of the brain reshape and make new connections so that you can respond or perform more effectively.

Where Is Implicit Memory Stored?

Explicit and implicit memories are stored in different regions of the brain (Squire & Dede, 2015). Brain areas involved in implicit memory are the basal ganglia, the neocortex, and the cerebellum. By contrast, explicit memories are stored in the hippocampus. Researchers believe that the amygdala, where emotion is processed, plays a part in both implicit and explicit memory processing (Squire & Dede, 2015). This may explain why a sensory stimulus (sight, sound, smell,) may trigger a strong emotional reaction which can lead to the resurfacing of a memory of a past event.

Here’s a video that explains how memories are created and where different types of memories are stored.

Video: Where Are Memories Stored?

Implicit Memory vs Procedural Memory

The term implicit memory is sometimes used interchangeably with procedural memory. However, procedural memory is a subset of implicit memory (Zichlin, 2011). Procedural memory is knowing how to perform learned activities without giving them much thought such as dressing, how to wash dishes, and even more complicated motor activities involved in athletics.

Is Episodic Memory Implicit?

Episodic memory is the ability to recall personally experienced events.

These memories may feel implicit because they seem to be part of who we are. However, because they involve conscious remembering or recalling, they are generally considered explicit memory. In addition, since Alzheimer’s patients lose primarily explicit memory, this explains why they struggle to remember events.

However, some investigators posit that some traumatic events create implicit memories because they cannot consciously be remembered due to a concept called dissociation.
Dissociation is thought to occur when an event is so traumatic that the mind represses or inhibits the ability to remember. This happens due to the brain being flooded with cortisol, a stress hormone. However, this is disputed among researchers (McNally, 2005).

A sensory experience such as a sound or smell can trigger a vivid episodic memory, sometimes a traumatic one, without you consciously retrieving it. You’ve likely heard them referred to as flashbacks. Again, because they were retrieved involuntarily, some argue that they’re implicit memories (Damis, 2022). This shows how implicit and explicit memories influence each other.

Regardless of whether a strong reaction or emotion is triggered by explicit or implicit memories, there are techniques such as mindfulness that can help you handle them in a constructive way.

Implicit Memory and Trauma

Studies indicate that implicit memory is involved in processing traumatic events. Traumatic memories are often associated with sensory experiences, sights, sounds, and smells (Damis, 2022). This is why something like a loud noise may trigger a resurgence of memories of a traumatic event. In addition, repeated childhood trauma can influence your self-perception, and in extreme circumstances such as abuse or neglect, can lead to PTSD (Damis, 2022). For example, if a person felt abandoned or neglected as a child, they may resist emotional attachment as an adult (Damis, 2022).

Implicit Memory and Trauma Example

Mindfulness techniques can be used to direct memory so they gain more control over emotions (Barry et al., 2006). Here’s an example from my own experience:

I had a panic attack once while driving to work. (Yes, it was a stressful job.) It was the first time this ever happened to me, and I didn’t know what was going on. I was on the freeway with no safe place to pull over. It was scary, but I made it to work safely. However, for some time afterward, every time I got to the stretch of the freeway where the panic attack occurred, I could feel the signs of another one coming on, although there was nothing inherently stressful happening. However, I was able to recognize what was happening and use mindfulness/breathing techniques to avert the panic attack.

Here’s a simple meditation technique:

If you can, find a quiet place. You can still do this if that’s not possible.
This can be done sitting, standing, or lying down. Whatever works in your situation. But keep your spine relatively straight without straining.
Close your eyes if that’s comfortable. Otherwise, keep your eyes quiet and your gaze soft.
Rather than fighting the emotion or getting carried away by it, simply allow it to be there.
Get curious about what’s going on. Observe what is happening in both your body and mind without trying to change it. Where am I holding my muscles tight? Is the mind racing or quiet? Whatever is happening, let it be there.
Watch your breath. Is it fast or slow? Shallow or deep? Keep your attention on your breath.
When your attention wanders away from the breath (which it will), acknowledge that and then gently bring your awareness back to the breath. This will likely happen many times.
Stay as long as you’re comfortable. This can be effective in as little as one minute, but longer is better. And it can be done many times throughout the day.

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Articles Related to Implicit Memory

Want to learn more? Check out these articles:

Books Related to Implicit Memory

If you’d like to keep learning more, here are a few books that you might be interested in.

Final Thoughts on Implicit Memory

Implicit memories are developed and operate unconsciously, and therefore may be difficult to address. But they can be important for self-understanding or to help change unwanted behavior or painful emotions. Recognizing how implicit memories work, and how they trigger behavior and strong emotions can be a first step in developing healthy ways to deal with them. We don’t have to allow them to hold us back from doing things we want to do in life or to sabotage our relationships. Mindfulness and meditation techniques can be particularly helpful in gaining some control.

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References

Barry, E. S., Naus, M. J., & Rehm, L. P. (2006). Depression, implicit memory, and self: A revised memory model of emotion. Clinical Psychology Review, 26(6), 719–745.
Damis, L. F. (2022). The role of implicit memory in the development and recovery from trauma-related disorders. NeuroSci, 3(1), 63–88.
Dew, I. T. Z., & Cabeza, R. (2011). The porous boundaries between explicit and implicit memory: Behavioral and neural evidence. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1224(1), 174–190.
Harrison, B. E., Son, G.-R., Kim, J., & Whall, A. L. (2007). Preserved implicit memory in dementia: A potential model for care. American Journal of Alzheimer's Disease & Other Dementiasr, 22(4), 286–293.
McNally, R. J. (2005). Debunking myths about trauma and memory. The Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 50(13), 817–822.
Reber, P. J. (2013). The neural basis of implicit learning and memory: A review of neuropsychological and neuroimaging research. Neuropsychologia, 51(10), 2026–2042.
Roediger, H. L. (1990). Implicit memory: Retention without remembering. American Psychologist, 45(9), 1043–1056.
Schott, B. H., Henson, R. N., Richardson-Klavehn, A., Becker, C., Thoma, V., Heinze, H.-J., & Düzel, E. (2005). Redefining implicit and explicit memory: The functional neuroanatomy of priming, remembering, and control of retrieval. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 102(4), 1257–1262.
Squire, L. R., & Dede, A. J. O. (2015). Conscious and unconscious Memory Systems. Cold Spring Harbor Perspectives in Biology, 7(3).
Zichlin, M. (2011). Procedural Memory. In: Kreutzer, J.S., DeLuca, J., Caplan, B. (eds) Encyclopedia of Clinical Neuropsychology. Springer, New York, NY.

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