Boredom: Definition, Quotes, & What to Do

By Beth Birenbaum, MPH
​Reviewed by Tchiki Davis, M.A., Ph.D.

Find out why we experience boredom, how it affects health and well-being, and what we can do about it.​

*This page may include affiliate links; that means we earn from qualifying purchases of products.

Nobody likes to be bored. In the extreme, it can feel excruciating. In one study, most participants (90%) found boredom so distressing that they chose to give themselves electric shocks rather than be bored (Eastgate, 2020).

From our devices to social media to Netflix, we have so many things to keep us from being bored. 

But boredom is still common. Why? And does it matter? It can seem trivial compared to other physical and mental health issues like depression, heart disease, and cancer. However, chronic boredom is associated with depression, anxiety, drug and alcohol misuse, compulsive gambling, eating disorders, hostility, anger, poor social skills, bad grades, and low work performance (Cantor, 2019). It has even been associated with a higher death rate (Britton & Shipley, 2010). 

But boredom isn’t always bad. It can spark creativity or push you to make positive changes, like pursuing a new career (Ndetei et al., 2023). Like many things, it depends on how you respond to it (Westgate, 2020). In this article, we'll define boredom, explore its causes, and explain why you should pay attention to it. We’ll also offer some practical strategies to help alleviate it that are hopefully more appealing than self-administering electric shocks.

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What Is Boredom? (A Definition)​

Boredom is an unpleasant psychological state characterized by a sense of dissatisfaction, restlessness, and lack of interest or engagement in activities or surroundings. One study describes it as “the aversive experience of wanting, but being unable, to engage in satisfying activity” (Eastman et al., 2012). It often leads to feelings of frustration, monotony, and a desire for novelty or change.
 
The American Psychological Association defines boredom as “a state of weariness or ennui resulting from a lack of engagement with stimuli in the environment” (APA, 2023). However, ennui is typically used to describe a different kind of boredom. Not so much situational, like when you’re waiting in line, but an overall feeling of discontent. That feeling of “nothing interesting to do, nowhere interesting to go”. Sounds a lot like depression, doesn’t it? Not surprisingly, there are correlations between the two (Ndetei et al., 2023).

Opposite of Boredom​

The opposite of boredom is interest or engagement. It’s when you feel a sense of excitement, curiosity, and fulfillment, which contrasts with the feelings of monotony and lack of stimulation associated with boredom. The ultimate experience of engagement may be considered a state of “flow”, when you’re so completely involved in something that you lose self-consciousness and the awareness of time passing. 

Causes of Boredom

Boredom is subjective and varies among different people. It can come out of both internal and external factors. Some common causes of boredom include: 
​

• Understimulation: When a situation or activity is monotonous, it’s difficult to become engaged with it leading to boredom (Chin et al., 2017). This often happens when people are not intellectually challenged or stimulated which makes it hard to pay attention.
• Overstimulation: When an environment is too overwhelming or chaotic, we tend to struggle to focus on anything which leads to boredom (Westgate, 2019). 
• Lack of meaning: Feeling like what you’re doing lacks value or a sense of purpose is another common cause of boredom. (Westgate, 2019).
• Level of difficulty: Boredom also sets in when a task is either too easy or too difficult. Either way, it’s hard to pay attention (Westgate, 2019).
• Isolation or Loneliness: Being alone or feeling disconnected from others can contribute to boredom. Human beings are social creatures and interactions with others often provide engagement and stimulation.
• Personality traits: Some personality traits are associated more highly with boredom. These include neuroticism (emotional stability) and extroversion (Martin et al., 2006). As someone who leans toward introversion, I’m generally just fine being alone a lot. But since extroverts generally have a higher need for social interaction, being alone all day could quickly feel isolating leading to boredom. The observation that some of us are more prone to boredom than others led to the development of the Boredom Proneness Scale.
• Age: Studies show a negative correlation between age and boredom. That is, the younger you are, the more likely you are to become bored (Chin et al., 2017). This also suggests that your boredom proneness can change throughout your life.
• Attention Deficit and Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD): Also not surprising, people with ADHD, who have trouble paying attention, are more prone to boredom (Malkovsy et al., 2012).
• Mental State: Emotional states like stress, anxiety, or depression can impact a person's ability to engage in activities, potentially leading to feelings of boredom.
• Lack of creativity: Engaging in activities that do not require creative thinking or problem-solving can lead to boredom, especially for people who thrive on mental challenges.
• Expectation mismatch: Boredom comes when we have high expectations for an activity, environment, or experience, and it fails to meet those expectations (Anderson et al., 2022). The problem is that even when something does meet our expectations, repetition causes it to become boring. Our many electronic distractions may alleviate boredom in the short term, but they can make it worse in the long term. Here’s a great video explaining why:

Video: Boredom Explained (Scientifically)

Psychology of Boredom

Several theories have been proposed on the psychological causes of boredom (Eastwood et al., 2012):
​

• Psychodynamic: The psychodynamic theory of boredom argues that boredom happens because of unconscious (and therefore unfulfilled) desires. So, we look to the outside world for satisfaction but become frustrated when this doesn’t help the problem.
• Existential: Existential theories argue that boredom is caused by a lack of meaning or purpose. 
• Arousal: This theory states that boredom happens when we need either more or less stimulation than the environment offers. 
• Cognitive: Cognitive theories posit that we get bored when we’re chronically unable to pay attention or focus. The “attentional process” has failed.  ​

The Meaning and Attentional Components (MAC) Model:​
​
John Eastman, a psychologist and a leading researcher on boredom, examined theories of boredom and concluded that attention is a central and overlapping component. He sees boredom as wanting to become engrossed in satisfying activity, but not being able to (Eastman et al., 2012). This led to the “meaning and attentional components” or MAC model of boredom. This model argues that boredom arises from a lack of meaning, lack of attention, or both (Westgate, 2019).

Boredom as an Emotion​

There is still some debate about whether boredom is an emotion or something like a mood, sensation, or personality trait.  But most researchers now consider it an emotion just like anger or sadness. 

Emotion is defined as a mental reaction that is subjectively experienced as an intense feeling and is accompanied by physiological responses and behavioral changes. Boredom aligns with this definition in several ways:
​

• Cognitive/mental reaction: Boredom is typically associated with perceptions of time passing by slowly, difficulty concentrating, and attention problems (van Hooft & van Hooft, 2018) 
• Subjective Experience: Boredom is a distinct and recognizable subjective experience that people can describe and communicate to others. It’s typically described as a feeling of monotony, restlessness, or inability to pay attention.
• Behavioral impacts: While an emotion like fear triggers you to act to avoid a threat, boredom can spark you to seek out more fulfilling or stimulating activities. Or it can lead you to take action to alleviate the feeling like texting, scrolling social media, or listening to music. It’s also associated with behaviors like yawing and fidgeting (Bench & Lench, 2013). 
• Physiological Responses: Boredom can be accompanied by physiological changes similar to those seen in other emotional states, such as changes in heart rate, cortisol levels, and brain activity. Surprisingly, our biological reactions to boredom are more similar to emotions with a higher arousal state like fear or anger. This may be that this helps us prepare to change our situation (Bench & Lench, 2013).

In addition, some researchers believe that treating boredom as an emotion helps us understand its causes and consequences.​

Boredom at Work

Sadly, boredom at work seems all too common. Boredom at work can feel particularly distressing because we may be unable to change the situation. We feel trapped. Some factors that lead to boredom at work include (Martin et al., 2006): 
​

• Obligation: A sense of having to do the work only to earn a living, not because you care about the work itself.  
• Repetition: This one is self-explanatory—think of repetitive factory work. 
• Low level of challenge: When work isn’t challenging, you can do it without really engaging with it. You can sort of go on auto-pilot. Boredom ensues. 
• Lack of social interaction: I remember having some jobs that were rather repetitive and not very meaningful. But if there were co-workers that I enjoyed interacting with, then I wasn’t bored and the time went by quickly.
• Environment: This might include dull or uninspiring surroundings—think of a cubicle or a dull gray office with fluorescent lighting. I get depressed just picturing it.
• Lack of freedom: One study showed that not having autonomy over your work tasks can lead to boredom (van Hooft & van Hooft, 2018)

Boredom in Life

Some philosophers suggest that the rising level of boredom in life is due to stimulation overload rather than monotony as it was in the past. Other factors that may contribute are spending more time alone, not having commitments, depression, a sense of meaninglessness, loss of mobility, or low income (Martin et al., 2006)​

Boredom in a Relationship

When a relationship is new, we may think there’s no way it could get boring. But if you stay in the relationship long enough, the excitement and novelty wears off. This can be a good thing if the excitement is replaced with feelings of comfort and contentment. But if it leads to boredom’s cousins, complacency and disconnect, it could be telling you something needs to change.
​
In one study, while couples gave many different reasons for the feeling of boredom in their relationships, the researchers saw a few main themes. These include disengagement (lack of interest in your partner, feeling disconnected), lack of communication, and lack of novelty or stimulation (no fun, no longer exciting) (Harasymchuk & Fehr, 2010). 

Another study found that in addition to increasing novel or growth-enhancing experiences, limiting “familiar and comforting shared activities” can also help to reduce boredom in a relationship (Harasymchuk et al., 2017). Routines can provide stability and comfort, but excessive predictability can contribute to boredom. When every day feels the same and there's little variation in activities or experiences, the relationship can start to feel monotonous. 

Strategies that couples can try to reduce boredom include (Harasymchuk & Fehr, 2010): 

• Try new activities
• Learn something new together
• Talk to your partner, have meaningful conversations
• Limit screen time, which can lead to emotional disconnection
• Go out with friends
• Consider your partner’s good qualities
• Spend time apart/take a break

Boredom in Retirement

Boredom in retirement often happens as a result of the sudden increase in unstructured free time. Retirement brings a huge shift in routines, social interactions, and rewards. In addition, for people who found their work meaningful, retirement removes a source of purpose in life, leading to profound boredom. 

In response, people may turn to destructive behaviors like gambling or drinking. Other coping behaviors include mindless activities like watching TV or spending exorbitant time on social media, which while less harmful to health, are not addressing the problem. In addition, many studies indicate that an unengaged mind not only leads to boredom but is also a contributing factor to Alzheimer’s and other forms of dementia (Westgate, 2019).

But on the positive side, retirement can also provide the chance to grow and engage in meaningful activities that you didn’t have time for when working full time. 

​Boredom and Eating

I think just about everyone has eaten out of boredom, at least occasionally. Boredom has been linked to both unhealthy food cravings and overeating. We use food in an attempt to escape from the experience of boredom, to distract ourselves. One study found we eat unhealthy food not so much as a desire for stimulation, but to escape mind-numbing monotony (Havermans et al., 2015). 

Boredom and Drinking

Like eating, using alcohol to alleviate boredom is common. Alcohol can be a quick and easy way to get rid of boredom due to its powerful effect on the brain, perception, and mood. It can also trigger the release of dopamine, a neurotransmitter associated with pleasure and reward. Because of the “quick fix” nature of alcohol, those of us who are more prone to boredom are also at higher risk for drinking too much. One study with adolescents found that being more prone to boredom is associated with higher levels of binge drinking (Weybright, 2015).  

While alcohol provides short-term relief from boredom, it can have negative consequences for both physical and mental health if you rely on it as a coping mechanism. Regular or excessive alcohol consumption can lead to addiction, health problems, impaired decision-making, and strained relationships.

Boredom in Recovery

Boredom is a major risk factor for relapse when in recovery (Cantor, 2019). When you’re used to intense stimulation from drugs or alcohol, living without it can feel routine and monotonous. Researchers suggest it’s important to address boredom from both external and internal perspectives (Corvinelli, 2005).
 
Addressing external factors might include trying new activities and developing new sober friendships. Internal factors include examining the reasons you feel bored and developing mindfulness while doing everyday tasks. Many also find joining a support group helpful.​

Boredom Busters

Things to do that alleviate boredom are subjective and highly individualized. And of course, there are many others not listed here, but hopefully, these can get you started or spark some other ideas:
​

• Meditation and Mindfulness: While this may not be “exciting”, studies show mindfulness practices are effective in combating boredom and its negative consequences (LePera, 2011). A simple technique is to observe the boredom and accept it. Don’t try to push it away. What does it feel like in your body? What other emotions are coming up? The experience of boredom may actually become interesting when you look at it with curiosity. 
• Closely observe: I do this when I’m walking my 16-year-old dog, Maggie. Let’s just say she’s a bit slower than she used to be and the walk can quickly get boring (one neighbor calls her Molasses Maggie). But if I pay close attention to my surroundings, and really observe, it becomes more interesting. I also find this helpful for my patience level while waiting in line.
• Exercise: In addition to relieving boredom, added benefits include health and an endorphin mood boost. The trick is finding something you enjoy. For me, surfing is never boring because it’s challenging and ocean conditions are never the same.
• Read a Book: One of my favorites. Maybe choose something that is outside of what you’d normally reach for. If you typically read novels, try poetry or nonfiction. Is there a subject you always wanted to know more about but never made the effort to investigate? Or if you’re not so much into reading, try an audiobook. 
• Do something creative: Try drawing, painting, crafting, or any other artistic activity. When doing something creative, you’re more likely to become absorbed in the activity, to enter a state of “flow,” which is considered the opposite of boredom (Corvinelli, 2005).
• Write: Start a journal, write poetry, short stories, or even start a blog on a topic you're passionate about. Another great creative outlet.
• Learn something new: Take an online course or tutorial in a subject you're curious about, such as cooking, coding, playing a musical instrument, or a new language.
• Puzzle and games: Solve puzzles, crosswords, sudoku, or play brain-teasing games to challenge your cognitive abilities. This can also reduce your risk of Alzheimer’s and other forms of dementia. 
• Listen to Music or Podcasts: Discover new music genres or listen to podcasts on topics that interest you. Most music streaming services will suggest new music and podcasts that match your tastes.
• Get outside: Go for a walk, hike, bike ride, or explore your local area to enjoy nature. Many studies show this not only lifts boredom but also lifts your mood.
• Gardening: Gardening can be a rewarding and therapeutic activity if you have outdoor space. 
• Volunteer: Find local or online opportunities to help others, whether through volunteering or mentoring. In addition to relieving boredom, you’ll feel good about helping others.

Quotes on Boredom

• “When you pay attention to boredom it gets unbelievably interesting.” – Jon Kabat-Zinn
  
• “Boredom: The desire for desire.” – Leo Tolstoy
  
• “The monotony and solitude of a quiet life stimulations the creative mind.” – Albert Einstein
  
• “The two enemies of human happiness are pain and boredom”. – Arthur Schopenhauer
  
• “Perhaps the world’s second worst crime is boredom. The first is being a bore.” – Jean Baudrillard
  
• “Boredom is your imagination calling you.” – Sherry Turkle
  

Articles Related to Boredom

​Want to learn more? Check out these articles:

• Live Life to the Fullest: 64 Ways to Live a Full Life
  
• Flow State: Definition and Tips to Get Into Flow
• Emotional Unavailability: Definition, Causes, & Signs
• Bad Habits: Definition, Examples, and How to Break Them​​​​​​​​​​​​​

Books Related to Boredom

If you’d like to keep learning more, here are a few books that you might be interested in.

• Yes I Have Boredom: Deal. With. It
• The Science of Boredom: Why Boredom is Good
• The Power of Boredom: Why Boredom is Essential for Creating a Meaningful Life

Final Thoughts on Boredom​

On the surface, boredom can seem trivial. But it can lead to unhealthy behaviors and health issues like overeating, substance misuse, depression, and anxiety.  

However, boredom is also useful. It alerts us that there’s something about the situation, ourselves, or both that needs to change. By understanding its underlying causes and actively seeking ways to combat them, we can transform moments of boredom into opportunities for personal development and fulfillment. Embracing curiosity, setting meaningful goals, and cultivating a mindful approach to life can help us lead a more engaging and purposeful existence.

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References

• Anderson, A. J., McMeen, C. E., Perone, S., & Weybright, E. H. (2022). Sound and Silence: The Effects of Environmental Conditions on State Boredom in an Online Study during the COVID-19 Pandemic. Behavioral Sciences, 12(8), 282
• APA. (2023). Apa Dictionary of Psychology. American Psychological Association. https://dictionary.apa.org/boredom 
• Bench, S. W., & Lench, H. C. (2013). On the function of boredom. Behavioral sciences, 3(3), 459-472.
• Britton, A., & Shipley, M. J. (2010). Bored to death?. International Journal of Epidemiology, 39(2), 370-371.
• ​​Cantor, C. (2019, November 8). Why being bored can be hazardous to your health. Columbia News. 
• Chin, A., Markey, A., Bhargava, S., Kassam, K. S., & Loewenstein, G. (2017). Bored in the USA: Experience sampling and boredom in everyday life. Emotion, 17(2), 359.
• Corvinelli, A. (2005). Alleviating boredom in adult males recovering from substance use disorder. Occupational Therapy in Mental Health, 21(2), 1-11.
• Eastwood, J. D., Frischen, A., Fenske, M. J., & Smilek, D. (2012). The unengaged mind: Defining boredom in terms of attention. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 7(5), 482-495.
• Harasymchuk, C., & Fehr, B. (2010). A script analysis of relational boredom: Causes, feelings, and coping strategies. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 29(9), 988-1019.
• Harasymchuk, C., Cloutier, A., Peetz, J., & Lebreton, J. (2017). Spicing up the relationship? The effects of relational boredom on shared activities. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 34(6), 833-854.
• Havermans, R. C., Vancleef, L., Kalamatianos, A., & Nederkoorn, C. (2015). Eating and inflicting pain out of boredom. Appetite, 85, 52-57.
• LePera, N. (2011). Relationships between boredom proneness, mindfulness, anxiety, depression, and substance use. The New School Psychology Bulletin, 8(2), 15-25.
• Malkovsky, E., Merrifield, C., Goldberg, Y., & Danckert, J. (2012). Exploring the relationship between boredom and sustained attention. Experimental Brain Research, 221, 59-67.
• Martin, M., Sadlo, G., & Stew, G. (2006). The phenomenon of boredom. Qualitative Research in Psychology, 3(3), 193-211.
• Ndetei, D. M., Nyamai, P., & Mutiso, V. (2023). Boredom–understanding the emotion and its impact on our lives: an African perspective. Frontiers in Sociology, 8, 1213190.
• van Hooft, E. A., & van Hooff, M. L. (2018). The state of boredom: Frustrating or depressing?. Motivation and emotion, 42(6), 931-946.
• Westgate, E. (2019). Are We Bored Yet? A Lifespan Perspective on the MAC Model of Boredom and Cognitive Engagement.
• Westgate, E. C. (2020). Why boredom is interesting. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 29(1), 33-40.
• Weybright, E. H., Caldwell, L. L., Ram, N., Smith, E. A., & Wegner, L. (2015). Boredom prone or nothing to do? Distinguishing between state and trait leisure boredom and its association with substance use in South African adolescents. Leisure sciences, 37(4), 311-331.

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