Neuroscience: Definition, History, & Examples

By Kelsey Schultz, Ph.D. Candidate
​Reviewed by Tchiki Davis, M.A., Ph.D.
Neuroscience allows us to understand ourselves like never before. Read on to learn about the history and practice of neuroscience. ​
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Neuroscience is a fascinating topic. I’ll admit that I’m a bit biased because neuroscience is my field of research; but still, it’s hard to imagine how someone could be disinterested in the organ that’s responsible for the entirety of their human experience. This is probably something we don’t often think deeply about when it’s working well, much like we don’t think about the plumbing in our homes until something breaks. Our brains just hum along, tacitly producing everything that defines us – our joy, pain, love, hopes, disappointments, and triumphs – without us even noticing. 
Neuroscience provides a look into this remarkable organ and helps us understand who we are, how we work, and how we can improve our lives. Let’s talk more about what neuroscience is and what it has to offer.​
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What Is Neuroscience? (A Definition)

Neuroscience is the scientific study of the nervous system. The brain is, of course, a central focus of neuroscience, but neuroscientific research also includes the study of other parts of the nervous system such as the spinal cord and peripheral nerves, or the nerves that extend throughout our bodies. There are many different levels at which to study the nervous system, from the microscopic study of individual neurons to the macroscopic study of the relationship between brain function and behavior.​

Why Is Neuroscience Important?

Neuroscience is important because it provides the opportunity to improve human life in several ways. Perhaps most obvious is the use of neuroscientific findings to create treatments for diseases and disorders of the nervous system such as Parkinson’s Disease, epilepsy, and spinal cord injuries. Since the early days of brain research, neuroscientists have made amazing strides in creating tools that can greatly reduce the suffering associated with these disorders. For example, in recent years, neuroscientists have created a device that allows people with paraplegia following a spinal cord injury to operate robotic limbs with their minds (Donoghue et al., 2007). While there is still a long way to go before this technology will be easily accessible to everyone, it is nevertheless quite an impressive feat. 

Another important function of neuroscience is to provide a window into who we are and how we operate. It allows us to understand our thoughts and behaviors in an objective way and helps us determine how we can best improve important psychological qualities like our mental health. I also see it as a way to honor and stand in awe of our complexity as life forms that evolved over billions of years from a primordial soup. Millions of years worth of chance mutations and the will to survive created the most complex system in the universe. And now, that complex system is capable of investigating itself. I find that truly amazing. 

Additionally, as with any field of science, the pursuit of knowledge can be beneficial in ways we might not anticipate. For example, the discovery of the X-rays, Penicillin, and the anti-malarial drug, Quinine, were all unintentionally discovered by scientists (Krock, 2001). We never know what life-altering benefits neuroscience may provide in the future. ​

Examples of Neuroscience Research

Neuroscience includes a vast array of sub-disciplines and research techniques. Below are just a few techniques commonly employed in neuroscience research.

Electrophysiology
Electrophysiology is the study of electrical activity in the nervous system. You might already be familiar with the research method Electroencephalography (EEG). EEG involves the use of small metal discs called electrodes. Because brain activity is electrical in nature, you can use EEG to observe electrical activity in the brain that is associated with a particular behavior or that differs between groups. Most commonly, the electrodes are embedded in a cap (think swim cap) which is placed on the head of the research participant. Electrical brain activity is basically picked up by these electrodes and recorded for later analysis. You can think of it like putting a bunch of microphones against a wall and recording all of the conversations that are happening on the other side.

Optogenetics
Optogenetics is a more recently developed tool that involves activating cells using lasers that emit specific wavelengths of light. This might sound a bit like science fiction, but it is possible to genetically modify cells in a way that makes them sensitive to a specific wavelength of light (commonly green or red). Scientists can then use green or red lasers to activate or turn off particular types of cells or cells in a specific region. Because this technique involves a complicated process of modifying very specific genetic sequences, it is never performed in humans.

Magnetic Resonance Imaging
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is another amazing tool commonly employed by neuroscientists. MRI uses a strong magnetic field and radio frequency waves to create pictures of soft tissues within the body, such as the brain. MRI can provide information about the structures within the brain and another form of MRI called functional MRI (or fMRI) can provide information about activity within the brain. 

Specifically, fMRI can identify which regions of the brain are receiving more blood flow with respect to other regions of the brain. The theory underlying this method is that brain regions that are more active require more oxygenation and thus more blood flow. By locating which regions are receiving more blood flow, you can make inferences about which regions are more or less active with respect to the rest of the brain during some kind of behavior.​

History of Neuroscience

The history of neuroscience can be traced back to the beginning of Greek civilization (Crivellato & Ribatti, 2007). Questions about the seat of the soul and the basis of human thought and rationality posed by ancient Greek philosophers like Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle represent some of the earliest neuroscientific inquiries. Many of these questions are still being explored by neuroscientists today.

There are many influential figures and notable shifts in understanding in the history of neuroscience between the 6th century B.C.E and today, but one of the most important is Santiago Ramón y Cajal. Ramón y Cajal was a Spanish neuroscientist who is commonly referred to as the father of modern neuroscience (DeFelipe, 2002). This title is principally owed to his work on visualizing the structure of the brain. Using a technique called Golgi staining, Ramón y Cajal was able to identify individual neurons and their complex networks for the first time in unprecedented detail. His work proved that the nervous system was made up of individual cells called neurons, which communicate with each other through specialized structures called synapses.

Ramón y Cajal is also known for his contributions to our understanding of brain development and neuronal plasticity, or the brain's ability to change its structure and function in response to learning and experience. In recognition of his contributions to neuroscience, he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1906, which he shared with the Italian histologist Camillo Golgi. His work continues to influence the field of neuroscience today.

Neuroscience vs Neurology

Neuroscience and Neurology are both fields that focus on the nervous system and its disorders, but there are important differences between them. The main difference is that neurology is a medical discipline that focuses on diagnoses and treatments of disorders of the nervous system. Neuroscience is the scientific study of the nervous system including disorders. Put simply, you go to medical school to become a neurologist and you go to graduate school to become a neuroscientist.​

Neuroscience vs Neurobiology

Neurobiology can be considered to be a subdiscipline or branch of neuroscience that focuses on the biological properties of the nervous system. In comparison, neuroscience may refer to a broader range of scientific inquiry that includes the study of behavior. For example, the study of behavioral changes following a head injury would be a form of neuroscience but would not be considered neurobiology.  ​

Neuroscience vs Psychology

Neuroscience and psychology are closely related fields that benefit greatly from one another. The aim of both is to understand the brain and behavior, but there are two important distinctions that can be made between them.
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The first is perspective. Psychological research often focuses more on the manifestation of behaviors and interventions that can improve behaviors whereas neuroscience focuses more on the neural mechanisms that produce behavior. For example, the study of effective therapeutic techniques or attachment styles would be considered psychological research and the study of how disparate brain regions communicate with one another would be considered neuroscience research. There is plenty of room for overlap between the two fields, however, and it is not uncommon for research to span both categories.

The second distinction is the methodologies used for psychological and neuroscience research. In other words, there are some research techniques that are specific to psychology and some that are specific to neuroscience. For example, if a researcher administered surveys or questionnaires for their study, this would fall in the realm of psychology. On the other hand, if a researcher examined the response properties of a specific type of brain cell, this would fall in the realm of neuroscience. Again, there are some techniques, such as brain imaging, that may be used by researchers in both fields.

Neuroscience vs Cognitive Science

The distinction between neuroscience and cognitive science is basically the same as the distinction between neuroscience and psychology. If you imagine a Ven diagram, there would be some research questions and methodologies that are specific to neuroscience and others that are specific to cognitive science, with plenty of overlap between the two.

Neuroscience of Learning

Neuroscientists that study learning are interested in how the brain processes, stores, and retrieves information, and how this knowledge can be applied to enhance learning and memory.
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One of the key findings in the neuroscience of learning is that the brain is highly adaptable and capable of changing its structure and function in response to experience. This is known as neuroplasticity, and it underlies the ability of the brain to learn and remember new information.

Researchers have identified several brain regions that are involved in learning and memory, including the hippocampus, prefrontal cortex, and basal ganglia. The hippocampus, in particular, plays a critical role in the formation and consolidation of new memories (Jarrard, 1993).

Neuroscience research has also shed light on the importance of sleep and exercise in learning and memory. It is thought that sleep allows the brain to replay and strengthen newly formed memories, making it crucial for memory consolidation (Kopasz et al., 2010). Exercise has been shown to be an important part of learning and memory. Specifically, it is thought that exercise promotes the production of a molecule called brain-derived neurotrophic factor, which increases neuronal survival and cell growth and ultimately enhances cognitive function (Cotman & Engesser-Cesar, 2002).​

Neuroscience of Meditation

The neuroscientific study of meditation is a new but promising field of research centered on understanding how meditation achieves the benefits we observe. For example, research has shown that meditation is associated with improvements in attention and emotion regulation (Basso et al., 2019). Neuroscientists then ask questions regarding the mechanisms underlying these improvements, or what is happening in the brain during meditation that brings about these consequences.

Meditation is associated with several changes in brain structure and function. For example, meditation is associated with a decrease in activity in what is known as the default mode network (Garrison et al., 2015). The default mode network is basically the network of activity across different parts of the brain that are active when your mind is wandering. Reduced activation of this network allows you to focus your thoughts as you might do during breathing meditation.
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Meditation has also been associated with an increase in cortical thickness in the prefrontal region of the brain (Lazar et al., 2005). This region is essential for many of our most desired cognitive functions like emotional regulation, attention, and critical thinking. It is hypothesized that the increased quantity of brain matter in these areas improves these abilities.  ​

Quotes on Neuroscience

  • ​“There is no scientific study more vital to man than the study of his own brain. Our entire view of the universe depends on it.”  – Francis Crick
  • “The brain is the organ of destiny. It holds within its humming mechanism secrets that will determine the future of the human race.” – Wilder Penfield
  • “Neuroscience is by far the most exciting branch of science because the brain is the most fascinating object in the universe. Every human brain is different - the brain makes each human unique and defines who he or she is.” – Stanley B. Prusiner
  • “Neuroscience over the next 50 years is going to introduce things that are mind-blowing.” – David Eagleman
  • “Exciting discoveries in neuroscience are allowing us to fit educational methods to new understandings of how the brain develops.” – John Katzman
  • “The Neurosciences do not exist exclusively to understand man's nature. They also serve a social function, such as in the treatment of the cerebral diseases or when helping us to have a more pleasant and constructive life. It is a thing that one could explore well.” – Rodolfo Llinas
  • “Neuroscience is a baby science, a mere century old, and our scientific understanding of the brain is nowhere near where we'd like it to be. We know more about the moons of Jupiter than what is inside of our skulls.” – Matt Haig

Articles Related to Neuroscience

​Want to learn more? Check out these articles:

Books Related to Neuroscience

If you’d like to keep learning more, here are a few books that you might be interested in.

Final Thoughts on Neuroscience

Neuroscience is a fascinating field of research that has - and will continue to - improve the quality of our lives. In addition to the medical advances it contributes to, neuroscience is a way to understand ourselves better. It is a way for the brain to know itself. For some neuroscience basics, check out this course video from Stanford University.​

Video: Introduction to Neuroscience

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